Borobudur Peninggalan Nabi Sulaiman, It's Amazing History..!!!

Borobudur Peninggalan Nabi Sulaiman

Membaca judul diatas, tentu banyak orang yang akan mengernyitkan dahi, sebagai tanda ketidakpercayaannya. Bahkan, mungkin demikian pula dengan Anda. Sebab, Nabi Sulaiman AS adalah seorang utusan Allah yang diberikan keistimewaan dengan kemampuannya menaklukkan seluruh makhluk ciptaan Allah, termasuk angin yang tunduk di bawah kekuasaannya atas izin Allah. Bahkan, burung dan jin selalu mematuhi perintah Sulaiman.

Menurut Sami bin Abdullah al-Maghluts, dalam bukunya Atlas Sejarah Nabi dan Rasul, Nabi Sulaiman diperkirakan hidup pada abad ke-9 Sebelum Masehi (989-931 SM), atau sekitar 3.000 tahun yang lalu. Sementara itu, Candi Borobudur sebagaimana tertulis dalam berbagai buku sejarah nasional, didirikan oleh Dinasti Syailendra pada akhir abad ke-8 Masehi atau sekitar 1.200 tahun yang lalu. Karena itu, wajarlah bila banyak orang yang mungkin tertawa kecut, geli, dan geleng-geleng kepala bila disebutkan bahwa Candi Borobudur didirikan oleh Nabi Sulaiman AS.

Candi Borobudur merupakan candi Budha. Berdekatan dengan Candi Borobudur adalah Candi Pawon dan Candi Mendut. Beberapa kilometer dari Candi Borobudur, terdapat Candi Prambanan, Candi Kalasan, Candi Sari, Candi Plaosan, dan lainnya. Candi-candi di dekat Prambanan ini merupakan candi Buddha yang didirikan sekitar tahun 772 dan 778 Masehi.

Lalu, apa hubungannya dengan Sulaiman? Benarkah Candi Borobudur merupakan peninggalan Nabi Sulaiman yang hebat dan agung itu? Apa bukti-buktinya? Benarkah ada jejak-jejak Islam di candi Buddha terbesar itu? Tentu perlu penelitian yang komprehensif dan melibatkan berbagai pihak untuk membuktikan validitas dan kebenarannya.

Namun, bila pertanyaan di atas diajukan kepada KH Fahmi Basya, ahli matematika Islam itu akan menjawabnya; benar. Borobudur merupakan peninggalan Nabi Sulaiman yang ada di tanah Jawa.

Dalam bukunya, Matematika Islam 3 (Republika, 2009), KH Fahmi Basya menyebutkan beberapa ciri-ciri Candi Borobudur yang menjadi bukti sebagai peninggalan putra Nabi Daud tersebut. Di antaranya, hutan atau negeri Saba, makna Saba, nama Sulaiman, buah maja yang pahit, dipindahkannya istana Ratu Saba ke wilayah kekuasaan Nabi Sulaiman, bangunan yang tidak terselesaikan oleh para jin, tempat berkumpulnya Ratu Saba, dan lainnya.

Dalam Alquran, kisah Nabi Sulaiman dan Ratu Saba disebutkan dalam surah An-Naml [27]: 15-44, Saba [34]: 12-16, al-Anbiya [21]: 78-81, dan lainnya. Tentu saja, banyak yang tidak percaya bila Borobudur merupakan peninggalan Sulaiman.

Di antara alasannya, karena Sulaiman hidup pada abad ke-10 SM, sedangkan Borobudur dibangun pada abad ke-8 Masehi. Kemudian, menurut banyak pihak, peristiwa dan kisah Sulaiman itu terjadi di wilayah Palestina, dan Saba di Yaman Selatan, sedangkan Borobudur di Indonesia.

Tentu saja hal ini menimbulkan penasaran. Apalagi, KH Fahmi Basya menunjukkan bukti-buktinya berdasarkan keterangan Alquran. Lalu, apa bukti sahih andai Borobudur merupakan peninggalan Sulaiman atau bangunan yang pembuatannya merupakan perintah Sulaiman?

Menurut Fahmi Basya, dan seperti yang penulis lihat melalui relief-relief yang ada, memang terdapat beberapa simbol, yang mengesankan dan identik dengan kisah Sulaiman dan Ratu Saba, sebagaimana keterangan Alquran. Pertama adalah tentang tabut, yaitu sebuah kotak atau peti yang berisi warisan Nabi Daud AS kepada Sulaiman. Konon, di dalamnya terdapat kitab Zabur, Taurat, dan Tingkat Musa, serta memberikan ketenangan. Pada relief yang terdapat di Borobudur, tampak peti atau tabut itu dijaga oleh seseorang.

"Dan Nabi mereka mengatakan kepada mereka: 'Sesungguhnya tanda ia akan menjadi raja, ialah kembalinya tabut kepadamu, di dalamnya terdapat ketenangan dari Tuhanmu dan sisa dari peninggalan keluarga Musa dan keluarga Harun; tabut itu dibawa malaikat. Sesungguhnya pada yang demikian itu terdapat tanda bagimu, jika kamu orang yang beriman'." (QS Al-Baqarah [2]: 248).

Kedua, pekerjaan jin yang tidak selesai ketika mengetahui Sulaiman telah wafat. (QS Saba [34]: 14). Saat mengetahui Sulaiman wafat, para jin pun menghentikan pekerjaannya. Di Borobudur, terdapat patung yang belum tuntas diselesaikan. Patung itu disebut dengan Unfinished Solomon.

Ketiga, para jin diperintahkan membangun gedung yang tinggi dan membuat patung-patung. (QS Saba [34]: 13). Seperti diketahui, banyak patung Buddha yang ada di Borobudur. Sedangkan gedung atau bangunan yang tinggi itu adalah Candi Prambanan.

Keempat, Sulaiman berbicara dengan burung-burung dan hewan-hewan. (QS An-Naml [27]: 20-22). Reliefnya juga ada. Bahkan, sejumlah frame relief Borobudur bermotifkan bunga dan burung. Terdapat pula sejumlah relief hewan lain, seperti gajah, kuda, babi, anjing, monyet, dan lainnya.

Kelima, kisah Ratu Saba dan rakyatnya yang menyembah matahari dan bersujud kepada sesama manusia. (QS An-Naml [27]: 22). Menurut Fahmi Basya, Saba artinya berkumpul atau tempat berkumpul. Ungkapan burung Hud-hud tentang Saba, karena burung tidak mengetahui nama daerah itu. "Jangankan burung, manusia saja ketika berada di atas pesawat, tidak akan tahu nama sebuah kota atau negeri," katanya menjelaskan. Ditambahkan Fahmi Basya, tempat berkumpulnya manusia itu adalah di Candi Ratu Boko yang terletak sekitar 36 kilometer dari Borobudur. Jarak ini juga memungkinkan burung menempuh perjalanan dalam sekali terbang.

Keenam, Saba ada di Indonesia, yakni Wonosobo. Dalam Alquran, wilayah Saba ditumbuhi pohon yang sangat banyak. (QS Saba [34]: 15). Dalam kamus bahasa Jawi Kuno, yang disusun oleh Dr Maharsi, kata 'Wana' bermakna hutan. Jadi, menurut Fahmi, wana saba atau Wonosobo adalah hutan Saba.

Ketujuh, buah 'maja' yang pahit. Ketika banjir besar (Sail al-Arim) menimpa wilayah Saba, pepohonan yang ada di sekitarnya menjadi pahit sebagai azab Allah kepada orang-orang yang mendustakan ayat-ayat-Nya.  "Tetapi, mereka berpaling maka Kami datangkan kepada mereka banjir yang besar[1236] dan Kami ganti kedua kebun mereka dengan dua kebun yang ditumbuhi (pohon-pohon) yang berbuah pahit, pohon Atsl dan sedikit dari pohon Sidr." (QS Saba [34]: 16).

Kedelapan, nama Sulaiman menunjukkan sebagai nama orang Jawa. Awalan kata 'su'merupakan nama-nama Jawa. Dan, Sulaiman adalah satu-satunya nabi dan rasul yang 25 orang, yang namanya berawalan 'Su'. Kesembilan, Sulaiman berkirim surat kepada Ratu Saba melalui burung Hud-hud. "Pergilah kamu dengan membawa suratku ini." (QS An-Naml [27]: 28).  Menurut Fahmi, surat itu ditulis di atas pelat emas sebagai bentuk kekayaan Nabi Sulaiman. Ditambahkannya, surat itu ditemukan di sebuah kolam di Candi Ratu Boko.

Kesepuluh, bangunan yang tinggal sedikit (Sidrin qalil). Lihat surah Saba [34] 16). Bangunan yang tinggal sedikit itu adalah wilayah Candi Ratu Boko. Dan di sana terdapat sejumlah stupa yang tinggal sedikit. "Ini membuktikan bahwa Istana Ratu Boko adalah istana Ratu Saba yang dipindahkan atas perintah Sulaiman," kata Fahmi menegaskan.

Selain bukti-bukti di atas, kata Fahmi, masih banyak lagi bukti lainnya yang menunjukkan bahwa kisah Ratu Saba dan Sulaiman terjadi di Indonesia. Seperti terjadinya angin Muson yang bertiup dari Asia dan Australia (QS Saba [34]: 12), kisah istana yang hilang atau dipindahkan, dialog Ratu Bilqis dengan para pembesarnya ketika menerima surat Sulaiman (QS An-Naml [27]: 32), nama Kabupaten Sleman, Kecamatan Salaman, Desa Salam, dan lainnya. Dengan bukti-bukti di atas, Fahmi Basya meyakini bahwa Borobudur merupakan peninggalan Sulaiman. Bagaimana dengan pembaca? Hanya Allah yang mengetahuinya. Segala Puji Bagi Tuhan Semesta Alam Yang Maha Esa

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Homeschooling or homeschool (also called home education or home based learning)

Homeschooling or homeschool (also called home education or home based learning) is the education of children at home, typically by parents but sometimes by tutors, rather than in other formal settings of public or private school. Although prior to the introduction of compulsory school attendance laws, most childhood education occurred within the family or community homeschooling in the modern sense is an alternative in developed countries to attending public or private schools.

Homeschooling is a legal option for parents in most countries to provide their children with a learning environment as an alternative to public or private schools outside the home. Parents cite numerous reasons as motivations to homeschool their children. The three reasons that are selected by the majority of parents in the United States are concern about the traditional school environment, to provide religious or moral instruction, and dissatisfaction with academic instruction at traditional public and private schools. Homeschooling may also be a factor in the choice of parenting style. Homeschooling can be an option for families living in isolated rural locations, living temporarily abroad, and to allow for more traveling; also many young athletes and actors are taught at home. Homeschooling can be about mentorship and apprenticeship, where a tutor or teacher is with the child for many years and then knows the child very well.

Homeschooling may also refer to instruction in the home under the supervision of correspondence schools or umbrella schools. In some places, an approved curriculum is legally required if children are to be home-schooled. A curriculum-free philosophy of homeschooling may be called unschooling, a term coined in 1977 by American educator and author John Holt in his magazine Growing Without Schooling. In some cases a liberal arts education is provided using the trivium and quadrivium as the main model.

History

For much of history and in many cultures, enlisting professional teachers (whether as tutors or in a formal academic setting) was an option available only to a small elite. Thus, until relatively recently, the vast majority of people were educated by family members (especially during early childhood) and in the fields or learning a trade.

The earliest compulsory education in the West began in the late 17th century and early 18th century in the German states of Gotha, Calemberg and, particularly, Prussia. However, even in the 18th century, the vast majority of people in Europe lacked formal schooling, which means they were homeschooled or received no education at all. The same was also true for colonial America and for the United States until the 1850s. Formal schooling in a classroom setting has been the most common means of schooling throughout the world, especially in developed countries, since the early and mid 19th century. Native Americans, who traditionally used homeschooling and apprenticeship, vigorously resisted compulsory education in the United States.

In 1964, John Caldwell Holt published a book entitled How Children Fail which criticized traditional schools of the time. The book was based on a theory he had developed as a teacher – that the academic failure of schoolchildren was caused by pressure placed on children by adults. Holt began making appearances on major TV talk shows and writing book reviews for Life magazine. In his follow-up work, How Children Learn, 1967, he tried to demonstrate the learning process of children and why he believed school short-circuits this process.

In these books Holt had not suggested any alternative to institutional schooling; he had hoped to initiate a profound rethinking of education to make schools friendlier toward children. As the years passed he became convinced that the way schools were was what society wanted, and that a serious re-examination was not going to happen in his lifetime.

Working in a similar vein was Rousas John Rushdoony who focused on education in America and was an advocate of homeschooling, which he saw as a way to combat the intentionally secular nature of the U.S. public school system. He vigorously attacked progressive school reformers such as Horace Mann and John Dewey and argued for the dismantling of the state's influence in education in three works: Intellectual Schizophrenia (a general and concise study of education), The Messianic Character of American Education (a history and castigation of public education in the U.S.), and The Philosophy of the Christian Curriculum (a parent-oriented pedagogical statement). Rushdoony was frequently called as an expert witness by the HSLDA (Home School Legal Defense Association) in court cases.

During this time, the American educational professionals Raymond and Dorothy Moore began to research the academic validity of the rapidly growing Early Childhood Education movement. This research included independent studies by other researchers and a review of over 8,000 studies bearing on Early Childhood Education and the physical and mental development of children.

They asserted that formal schooling before ages 8–12 not only lacked the anticipated effectiveness, but was actually harmful to children. The Moores began to publish their view that formal schooling was damaging young children academically, socially, mentally, and even physiologically. They presented evidence that childhood problems such as juvenile delinquency, nearsightedness, increased enrollment of students in special education classes, and behavioral problems were the result of increasingly earlier enrollment of students.^[9] The Moores cited studies demonstrating that orphans who were given surrogate mothers were measurably more intelligent, with superior long term effects – even though the mothers were mentally retarded teenagers – and that illiterate tribal mothers in Africa produced children who were socially and emotionally more advanced than typical western children, by western standards of measurement.

Their primary assertion was that the bonds and emotional development made at home with parents during these years produced critical long term results that were cut short by enrollment in schools, and could neither be replaced nor afterward corrected in an institutional setting. Recognizing a necessity for early out-of-home care for some children – particularly special needs and starkly impoverished children, and children from exceptionally inferior homes– they maintained that the vast majority of children are far better situated at home, even with mediocre parents, than with the most gifted and motivated teachers in a school setting (assuming that the child has a gifted and motivated teacher). They described the difference as follows: "This is like saying, if you can help a child by taking him off the cold street and housing him in a warm tent, then warm tents should be provided for all children – when obviously most children already have even more secure housing.

Similar to Holt, the Moores embraced homeschooling after the publication of their first work, Better Late Than Early, 1975, and went on to become important homeschool advocates and consultants with the publication of books like Home Grown Kids, 1981, Homeschool Burnout, and others.

At the time, other authors published books questioning the premises and efficacy of compulsory schooling, including Deschooling Society by Ivan Illich, 1970 and No More Public School by Harold Bennet, 1972.

In 1976, Holt published Instead of Education; Ways to Help People Do Things Better. In its conclusion, he called for a "Children's Underground Railroad" to help children escape compulsory schooling. In response, Holt was contacted by families from around the U.S. to tell him that they were educating their children at home. In 1977, after corresponding with a number of these families, Holt began producing Growing Without Schooling, a magazine dedicated to home education.

In 1980, Holt said, "I want to make it clear that I don't see homeschooling as some kind of answer to badness of schools. I think that the home is the proper base for the exploration of the world which we call learning or education. Home would be the best base no matter how good the schools were.

Holt later wrote a book about homeschooling, Teach Your Own, in 1981.

One common theme in the homeschool philosophies of both Holt and the Moores is that home education should not be an attempt to bring the school construct into the home, or a view of education as an academic preliminary to life. They viewed it as a natural, experiential aspect of life that occurs as the members of the family are involved with one another in daily living.

Methodology

Homeschools use a wide variety of methods and materials. There are different paradigms, or educational philosophies, that families adopt including unit studies, Classical education (including Trivium, Quadrivium), Charlotte Mason education, Montessori method, Theory of multiple intelligences, Unschooling, Radical Unschooling, Waldorf education, School-at-home, A Thomas Jefferson Education, and many others. Some of these approaches, particularly unit studies, Montessori, and Waldorf, are also available in private or public school settings.

It is not uncommon for the student to experience more than one approach as the family discovers what works best for them. Many families do choose an eclectic (mixed) approach. For sources of curricula and books, "Homeschooling in the United States: 2003 found that 78 percent utilized "a public library"; 77 percent used "a homeschooling catalog, publisher, or individual specialist"; 68 percent used "retail bookstore or other store"; 60 percent used "an education publisher that was not affiliated with homeschooling." "Approximately half" used curriculum or books from "a homeschooling organization", 37 percent from a "church, synagogue or other religious institution" and 23 percent from "their local public school or district." 41 percent in 2003 utilized some sort of distance learning, approximately 20 percent by "television, video or radio"; 19 percent via "Internet, e-mail, or the World Wide Web"; and 15 percent taking a "correspondence course by mail designed specifically for homeschoolers."

Individual governmental units, e. g. states and local districts, vary in official curriculum and attendance requirements.

Unit studies

The unit study approach incorporates several subjects, such as art, history, math, science, geography and other curriculum subjects, around the context of one topical theme, like water, animals, American slavery, or ancient Rome.^{[15][unreliable source?]} For example, a unit study of Native Americans could combine age-appropriate lessons in: social studies, how different tribes lived prior to colonization vs. today; art, making Native American clothing; history (of Native Americans in the U.S.); reading from a special reading list; and the science of plants used by Native Americans.

Unit studies are particularly helpful for teaching multiple grade levels simultaneously, as the topic can easily be adjusted (i.e. from an 8th grader detailing and labeling a spider's anatomy to an elementary student drawing a picture of a spider on its web). As it is generally the case that in a given "homeschool" very few students are spread out among the grade levels, the unit study approach is an attractive option.

Unit study advocates assert that children retain 45% more information following this approach.

All-in-one curricula

All-in-one homeschooling curricula (variously known as "school-at-home", "The Traditional Approach" "school-in-a-box" or "The Structured Approach"), are methods of homeschooling in which the curriculum and homework of the student are similar or identical to what would be taught in a public or private school; as one example, the same textbooks used in conventional schools are often used. These are comprehensive packages that contain all of the needed books and materials for the whole year. These materials are based on the same subject-area expectations as publicly run schools which allows for easy transition back into the school system. These are among the more expensive options for homeschooling, but they require minimal preparation and are easy to use. Step-by-step instructions and extensive teaching guides are provided. Some include tests or access information for remote testing. Many of these programs allow students to obtain an accredited high school diploma.

Student-paced learning

Similar to All-in-one curricula are learner-paced curriculum packages. These workbooks allow the student to progress at their own speed.

Online education

Online resources for homeschooling include courses of study, curricula, educational games, online tests, online tutoring, and occupational training. Online learning potentially allows students and families access to specialized teachers and materials and greater flexibility in scheduling. Parents can be with their children during an online tutoring session. Finally, online tutoring is useful for students who are disabled or otherwise limited in their ability to travel. Several well-known programs for gifted children, who need differentiation in their curricular choices, are available: the Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth http://cty.jhu.edu/about/index.html and Stanford University's Education Program for Gifted Youth http://epgy.stanford.edu/ both provide challenging materials to students, including both self-paced courses with tutor support and online classroom-based courses. A commercial program of online study in all courses and at all grade levels is available from K12.com http://www.k12.com/. The K12 curriculum has been adopted by a number of public independent study charter schools throughout the country (see, for example, the California Virtual Academies at http://www.k12.com/cava/, where students use the K12 curriculum for credit under the supervision of a credentialed teacher). A number of other online high schools are also offering diplomas in many states, including some directed specifically at gifted students (see Stanford Online High School at http://epgy.stanford.edu/ohs/. Students can enroll in a full-time course load leading to a diploma or enroll in particular courses as part of their enrollment in another school or homeschool). Similarly, as more and more universities make content available online, homeschooled families are finding a wealth of materials available, primarily for use as self-study. Although teacher support is not usually provided in open courseware programs, families teaching their own children may, if the study met their requirements, grant credit for the work through their homeschools. The University of California at Berkeley, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and many other renowned universities have contributed materials in this area. Some commercial organizations publish university-level lecture series on a broad range of subjects. Although the companies typically offer no teacher support or credit, homeschool families can, depending on their legal method of homeschooling, grant credit for work that includes the use of these materials if mastery is demonstrated to the satisfaction of the parents or other persons with oversight responsibility. Noted musical educator S. M. Laddusaw has developed an adaptive musical curriculum (based on proprietary software) whereby students can learn piano and basic music theory at the student's own pace. The software recognizes patterns in the student's learning and adjusts the curriculum accordingly.

Community resources

Homeschoolers often take advantage of educational opportunities at museums, libraries, community centers, athletic clubs, after-school programs, churches, science preserves, parks, and other community resources. Secondary school level students may take classes at community colleges, which typically have open admission policies. In many communities, homeschooling parents and students participate in community theater, dance, band, symphony, and choral opportunities.^{[citation needed]}

Groups of homeschooling families often join together to create homeschool co-ops. These groups typically meet once a week and provide a classroom environment. These are family-centered support groups whose members seek to pool their talents and resources in a collective effort to broaden the scope of their children's education. They provide a classroom environment where students can do hands-on and group learning such as performing, science experiments, art projects, foreign language study, spelling bees, discussions, etc. Parents whose children take classes serve in volunteer roles to keep costs low and make the program a success.

Certain states, such as Maine, Florida and New Mexico, have laws that permit homeschooling families to take advantage of public school resources. In such cases, children can be members of sports teams, be members of the school band, can take art classes, and utilize services such as speech therapy while maintaining their homeschool lifestyle.

Unschooling and natural learning

Some people use the terms "unschooling" or "radical unschooling" to describe all methods of education that are not based in a school.

"Natural learning" refers to a type of learning-on-demand where children pursue knowledge based on their interests and parents take an active part in facilitating activities and experiences conducive to learning but do not rely heavily on textbooks or spend much time "teaching", looking instead for "learning moments" throughout their daily activities. Parents see their role as that of affirming through positive feedback and modeling the necessary skills, and the child's role as being responsible for asking and learning.^{[citation needed]}

The term "unschooling" as coined by John Holt describes an approach in which parents do not authoritatively direct the child's education, but interact with the child following the child's own interests, leaving them free to explore and learn as their interests lead. "Unschooling" does not indicate that the child is not being educated, but that the child is not being "schooled", or educated in a rigid school-type manner. Holt asserted that children learn through the experiences of life, and he encouraged parents to live their lives with their child. Also known as interest-led or child-led learning, unschooling attempts to follow opportunities as they arise in real life, through which a child will learn without coercion. An unschooled child may utilize texts or classroom instruction, but these are not considered central to education. Holt asserted that there is no specific body of knowledge that is, or should be, required of a child.

"Unschooling" should not be confused with "deschooling," which may be used to indicate an anti-"institutional school" philosophy, or a period or form of deprogramming for children or parents who have previously been schooled.

Both unschooling and natural learning advocates believe that children learn best by doing; a child may learn reading to further an interest about history or other cultures, or math skills by operating a small business or sharing in family finances. They may learn animal husbandry keeping dairy goats or meat rabbits, botany tending a kitchen garden, chemistry to understand the operation of firearms or the internal combustion engine, or politics and local history by following a zoning or historical-status dispute. While any type of homeschoolers may also use these methods, the unschooled child initiates these learning activities. The natural learner participates with parents and others in learning together.

Homeschooling families usually have to absorb the total costs of their child's education.

Autonomous learning

Autonomous learning is a school of education which sees learners as individuals who can and should be autonomous i.e. be responsible for their own learning climate.

Autonomous education helps students develop their self-consciousness, vision, practicality and freedom of discussion. These attributes serve to aid the student in his/her independent learning.

Autonomous learning is very popular with those who home educate their children. The child usually gets to decide what projects they wish to tackle or what interests to pursue. example: a child that loves music will choose to learn or play a musical instrument. In home education this can be instead of or in addition to regular subjects like doing math or English. At University/College Students are expected to learn independently without constant support from lectures and tutors this is known as autonomous learning. (Source:Book name,Student skills guide,2nd edition,pg 206)

According to Home Education UK the autonomous education philosophy emerged from the epistemology of Karl Popper in The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality, which is developed in the debates, which seek to rebut the neo-Marxist social philosophy of convergence proposed the Frankfurt School (e.g. Theodor W. Adorno Jürgen Habermas Max Horkheimer).

Homeschooling and college admissions

After primary education is completed, many students choose to stop homeschooling in favor of more traditional higher education at established colleges and universities. Many students use standardized test scores to aid colleges in evaluating their educational background. The College Board suggests that homeschooled students keep detailed records and portfolios.

In the last several decades, US colleges and universities have become increasingly open to accepting students from diverse backgrounds, including home-schooled students. According to one source, homeschoolers have now matriculated at over 900 different colleges and universities, including institutions with highly selective standards of admission such as the US military academies, Rice University, Haverford College, Harvard University, Stanford University, Cornell University, Brown University, Dartmouth College, and Princeton University.

A growing number of homeschooled students are choosing dual enrollment, earning college credit by taking community college classes while in high school. Others choose to earn college credits through standardized tests such as the College Level Examination Program (CLEP).

Homeschool cooperatives

A Homeschool Cooperative is a cooperative of families who homeschool their children. It provides an opportunity for children to learn from other parents who are more specialized in certain areas or subjects. Co-ops also provide social interaction for homeschooled children. They may take lessons together or go on field trips. Some co-ops also offer events such as prom and graduation for homeschoolers.

Homeschoolers are beginning to utilize Web 2.0 as a way to simulate homeschool cooperatives online. With social networks homeschoolers can chat, discuss threads in forums, share information and tips, and even participate in online classes via blackboard systems similar to those used by colleges.

Homeschool athletics

Early in the 21st century, a number of national and international organizations began oversight of sports exclusively for homeschool athletic teams. N.C.H.B.C. has organized a National Basketball Championship with over 350 teams competing through a network of regional qualifying competitions. Currently H.W.S.A. organizes a Baseball National Championship, N.H.S.V.B.T. in volleyball,N.H.S.C. in Soccer, and N.H.FA. in 8-man football. Additional structures are organizing national championships in tennis, and 11-man football. In 2005, the Central Virginia Homeschool Disciples became the first 11-man high school homeschool football team in the U.S.

In 1994, Jason Taylor was a homeschool football player in Pennsylvania who engaged a legal battle against the N.C.A.A. (the leading oversight association governing U.S. collegiate athletics) and it's classification of homeschool athletes as essentially high school drop-outs. Taylor's legal victory has provided a precedent for thousands of other homeschool athletes to compete in colleges and attain the same opportunities in education and professional development that other athletes enjoy. Other homeschool students who have risen to the top of collegiate competition include N.C.A.A. 2005 champion tennis player, Chris Lam, Kevin Johnson of the Tulsa University basketball team, 2010-2011 Big South Player of the Year Jesse Sanders of the Liberty University Flames and the 2007 Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow from the University of Florida .

In Texas, Six-Man Football has also been popular among homeschoolers, with at least five teams being fielded for the 2008-2009 season. Interestingly enough, the top 3 places in the Texas Independent State Championship (TISC, also referred to as "the Ironman Bowl) were claimed by homeschool teams. The Homeschool Sportsnet website lists several homeschool sports teams and organizations.

Faktor Pemicu dan Pendukung Homeschooling

Kegagalan sekolah formal

Baik di Amerika Serikat maupun di Indonesia, kegagalan sekolah formal dalam menghasilkan mutu pendidikan yang lebih baik menjadi pemicu bagi keluarga-keluarga di Indonesia maupun di mancanegara untuk menyelenggarakan homeschooling. Sekolah rumah ini dinilai dapat menghasilkan didikan bermutu.

Teori Inteligensi ganda

Salah satu teori pendidikan yang berpengaruh dalam perkembangan homeschooling adalah Teori Inteligensi Ganda (Multiple Intelligences) dalam buku Frames of Minds: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) yang digagas oleh Howard Gardner. Gardner menggagas teori inteligensi ganda. Pada awalnya, dia menemukan distingsi 7 jenis inteligensi (kecerdasan) manusia.

Kemudian, pada tahun 1999, ia menambahkan 2 jenis inteligensi baru sehingga menjadi 9 jenis inteligensi manusia. Jenis-jenis inteligensi tersebut adalah:Inteligensi linguistik; Inteligensi matematis-logis; Inteligensi ruang-visual; Inteligensi kinestetik-badani; Inteligensi musikal; Inteligensi interpersonal; Inteligensi intrapersonal; Inteligensi ligkungan; dan Inteligensi eksistensial.

Teori Gardner ini memicu para orang tua untuk mengembangkan potensi-potensi inteligensi yang dimiliki anak. Kerapkali sekolah formal tidak mampu mengembangkan inteligensi anak, sebab sistem sekolah formal sering kali malahan memasung inteligensi anak.
(Buku acuan yang dapat digunakan mengenai teori inteligensi ganda ini dalam bahasa Indonesia ini, Teori Inteligensi Ganda, oleh Paul Suparno, Kanisius: 2003).

Sosok homeschooling terkenal

Banyaknya tokoh-tokoh penting dunia yang bisa berhasil dalam hidupnya tanpa menjalani sekolah formal juga memicu munculnya homeschooling. Sebut saja, Benyamin Franklin, Thomas Alfa Edison, KH. Agus Salim, Ki Hajar Dewantara dan tokoh-tokoh lainnya.

Benyamin Franklin misalnya, ia berhasil menjadi seorang negarawan, ilmuwan, penemu, pemimpin sipil dan pelayan publik bukan karena belajar di sekolah formal. Franklin hanya menjalani dua tahun mengikuti sekolah karena orang tua tak mampu membayar biaya pendidikan. Selebihnya, ia belajar tentang hidup dan berbagai hal dari waktu ke waktu di rumah dan tempat lainnya yang bisa ia jadikan sebagai tempat belajar.

Tersedianya aneka sarana

Dewasa ini, perkembangan homeschooling ikut dipicu oleh fasilitas yang berkembang di dunia nyata. Fasilitas itu antara lain fasilitas pendidikan (perpustakaan, museum, lembaga penelitian), fasilitas umum (taman, stasiun, jalan raya), fasilitas sosial (taman, panti asuhan, rumah sakit), fasilitas bisnis (mall, pameran, restoran, pabrik, sawah, perkebunan), dan fasilitas teknologi dan informasi (internet dan audivisual).

Atlantis - The Lost Continent Finally Found

Atlantis - The Lost Continent Finally Found

Frank Joseph Hoff will be appearing on CFLZ 105.1 Ed FM Radio, "The Ghost Eliminators Paranormal Talk Show" in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada to do an interview with hosts Betty & Jeff on Sunday, October 30, 2011 from 7:00am-8:00am(ET) / 4:00am-5:00am(PT) regarding the late Prof. Arysio Santos'(Ph.D.) seminal discoveries on Atlantis. His book: Atlantis - The Lost Continent Finally Found {The Definitive Localization of Plato's Lost Civilization}. (To hear the LIVE show online click on the CFLZ 105.1 ED FM Radio link above to stream the audio). The show will also be archived at: http://www.1051edfm.com/on-air/ghost-eliminators

We present, in these pages and in our recently released book, a novel theory on Atlantis that will, if accepted, cause a revolution in the fields of archaeology and the human sciences, rendering them fit for the encroaching Millennium. Atlantis was never found because we have all been looking in the wrong places. Realizing that, we started to look for the spot where an entire sunken continent could be hiding itself. Geology afforded the correct, irrefutable answer: down under the South China Sea, that is where. The rest followed quite naturally and, in fact, far more serendipitously than we ourselves could ever have imagined beforehand.

For the tantalizing details, just keep reading, and you will see that we have also found, as a surplus, the Garden of Eden, the Island of Avalon, the Garden of the Hesperides, the hideout of the New Jerusalem, the true location of Troy and of Lanka, as well as the Holy Land and Paradise that has been promised us all from the dawn of time. Yes, Atlantis is rising from the waves, bright as the Phoenix and clean and virginal as the Venus of Botticelli.

PERSONAL DATA

• Name: Arysio Nunes dos Santos
• Nationality: Brazilian
• Place of Birth: Belo Horizonte - Minas Gerais (BRAZIL)
• Birth Date: 24 of February, 1937
• Civil Status: Married
• Current Job : Professor of Nuclear Engineering - Escola de Engenharia da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG) - Departamento de Engenharia Nuclear
• Fields of Specialization: Eletronics - Instrumentation and Control - Physical Chemistry - Nuclear Physics - Nuclear Engineering - Relativity and Cosmology - Cryptography
• Hobbies and Amateur Specialties: Archeology - Atlantis - Mythology - Linguistics, Ethnology - Occultism - Alchemy (with published books in Portuguese now being translated into English). Boasts of having proved the reality of the Universal Flood and of having discovered Eden’s and Atlantis’ true site in the now sunken Austronesian continent, to the east of Indonesia, in what is nowadays the shallows of the South China Sea. For further details visit our Internet Homepage at "http://www.atlan.org"

 PREVIOUS JOBS AND POSITIONS:

• Associated Researcher of the Institute for Radioactive Research (Instituto de Pesquisas Radioativas, now named CDTN/CNEN) ( from 1959-1974)
• Professor of the Chemical Department (Departamento de Química do ICEX/UFMG)
• Free-Docent Professor of the Physics Institute of the State University of Campinas (São Paulo) ( Professor Livre-Docente MS-4, Instituto de Física da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP) - (1974 - 1978)
• Technological Engineer of the Federal University of Minas Gerais State (Engenheiro Tecnologista - TC-605-21-A, Efetivo do Quadro Único de Pessoal da UFMG)
• Consultant Engineer in Instrumentation and Control of the Fundação de Tecnologia Industrial do MIC - (1979-1989)
• Consultant Engineer in Control and Instrumentation of Chemical Processes of the Fundação CETEC (Centro Tecnológico de Minas Gerais) - (1979-1989)

RECENT TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES

• President-Director (CEO) of GDS - Tecnologia de Sistemas Ltda. (1982 to Present). Our firm specializes in the development of computerized systems for special applications)
• Member of the Technical Panels for the Yearly Meetings of the Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science (Painéis Técnicos Anuais da Sociedade Brasileira para o Progresso da Ciência) - (1982- 1994)
• Organizer and Coordinator of the Course for Technicians in Radioprotection of the Depto. de Engenharia Nuclear da UFMG, for the Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear.
• Dean (Coordinator) of the Post-Graduation Course in Nuclear Science and Technology of the Department of Nuclear Engineering of the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (Curso de Mestrado em Ciências e Técnicas Nucleares do Depto. de Engenharia Nuclear da UFMG).
• Inventor and Co-Industrializer of the Thermo-Compensated Automatic Densimeter for the Brazilian Fuel Alcohol Program used by Petrobrás and other Fuel Companies of Brazil for the prevention of frauds and the control of the quality of the fuel.
• Inventor and Industrializer of the SACID Process for the Automatic Fingerprint Identification developed by the GDS Systems Technology for the Police Department of Rio de Janeiro State (Brazil)
• Inventor and Co-Industrializer of the Process for the Safe Access to Cellular Telephones developed by the GDS Systems Technology (presently being industrialized and marketed internationally in collaboration with Telemig Telecomunicações de Minas Gerais SA.)

RECENT INVENTION PATENTS (co-authored with other members of GDS Systems Technology, which is the assignee and industrializer of most of them)

• Process for the Absolutely Safe Encrypting of Data Transmitted or Stored in Computers and Similars.
• Process for the Absolutely Safe Encrypting of Credit Cards and Similars
• Process for the Safe Access to Cellular and Fixed Line Telephones
• Process to Render Checks and Similar Documents Fraud Proof
• Process to Render Tickets, Passes, Passports and Similar Documents Fraud Proof
• Process to Render Invoices and Similar Documents Fraud Proof
• Process for the Automatic Control and Billing in Public Parking Lots and Streets
• Several other Patents on Sundry Processes and Instrumentation

ACADEMIC FORMATION

GRADUATION

• Electronic Engineer - Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica (ITA) - (1955-1959)

POST-GRADUATION

• Post-Graduation Course in Nuclear Engineering (EE/UFMG - 1959-1961)
• Master in Nuclear sciences and Techniques (EE/UFMG - 1963)
• Master of Science (Physics) - Washington University - USA - (1963-1964)
• Philosophy Doctor (Physics) Washington University - St. Louis (MO) USA -1964-1968
• Doctorate and Free-Docency by Public Contest in Physical Chemistry at the Instituto de Ciências Exatas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (1972-1974)

TITLES, DEGREES, CONTESTS AND ACADEMIC HONOURS

• Free-Docent by Public Contest and Examination (Instituto de Ciências Exatas da Univ. Federal de Minas Gerais - 1974).
• M.Sc. e Ph.D. (Nuclear Physics) (Washington Univ. St. Louis-MO-USA - 1963-1968)
• Master in Nuclear Sciences and Technology- IPR/UFMG - 1960
• Electronics Engineer (ITA - 1959)
• Medal of Paragon Professor (Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - 1973).
• Member, Brazilian Physical Society (Sociedade Brasileira de Física, 1968 to present).
• Medal of Pioneer in Nuclear Engineering (CDTN/CNEN - 1988)
• Fellow, Atomic Energy Agency (1962-1966)
• Fellow of the Brazilian National Energy Commission (CNEN-1959-1961)
• Research Assistant (Nuclear Physics) (Washington University - 1963-1967)

CARREER, JOBS AND ACTIVITIES

• Technological Engineer (Inst. For Radioactive Research (IPR) - (1960- 1969)
• Professor of the Post-Graduate Nuclear Engineering Course - IPR/UFMG - (1963-1968)
• Senior Engineer-Scientist - Institute for Radioactive Research-IPR/CNEN - (1969-1974)
• Professor of the Post-Graduation Course in Nuclear Science and Engineering at the Federal University of Minas Gerais(CCTN/UFMG) - (Curso de Mestrado em Ciências e Técnicas Nucleares) (1968-1994)
• Consultant Engineer in Instrumentation and Control of the Fundação de Tecnologia Industrial of the Ministry of Industry and Commerce (MIC) - (1979-1989)
• Consultant Engineer in Control and Instrumentation of Chemical Processes of the Fundação CETEC (Centro Tecnológico de Minas Gerais) - (1979-1989)
• Technologist Engineer - TC-605-21-A - Location: Instituto de Ciências Exatas da UFMG - Department of Chemistry (Licenced)
• Manager Professor of the Laboratory of Instrumental Physical Chemistry - (1974-1975)
• Coordinator (Dean) of the Masters Course in Nuclear Sciences and Engineering of the Engineering School of the Federal university of Minas Gerais (1986-1992)
• Member of the Consulting Committee on Nuclear Fuels of the Brazilian National Energy Commission (1971-1974)
• Chief of the Research Group in Nuclear and Physical measurements of the Institute for Radioactive Research of the Brazilian Nuclear Commission (1971-1974)
• Coordinator (Dean) of the Course for the Formation and Qualification of Technicians in Radioprotection of the Nuclear Engineering Dept. of the Federal University of Minas Gerais (1992-1995)

SCHOLARSHIPS

• Fellow of International Atomic Energy Agency (Vienna) 1963/1966.
• Research Assistant - Washington Univ. 1964/1967.
• Fellow of the Brazilian National Energy Commission (CNEN) -1959-1961.

PUBLISHED COURSE NOTES AND MINISTRATION

• Introduction to Electronics Laboratory- ITA - (1956-1958)
• Lab Course in Atomic and Nuclear Physics-Escola de Engenharia da UFMG (1959-1962)
• Introduction to Modern Physics - Escola de Engenharia da UFMG - (1960-1962)
• Teaching Assistant of Introduction to Modern Physics - Washington University - (1962-1966)
• Eletronics for Scientists - Washington Univ. 1964/1966
• Seminar on Theoretical Nuclear Physics - Washington Univ. 1966/1968
• Atomic and Nuclear Physics (Theory) - Curso de Mestrado em Ciências e Técnicas Nucleares do Inst. de Pesquisas Radioativas da UFMG - 1968/1970
• Laboratory Course on Radiation Detection - Curso de Mestrado em Ciências e Técnicas Nucleares do Inst. de Pesquisas Radioativas da UFMG - 1971/1979)
• Introduction to Modern Physics- Curso de Mestrado em Ciências e Técnicas Nucleares do Inst. de Pesquisas Radioativas da UFMG - 1979/1989)
• Laboratory Course on Modern Physics - Instituto de Ciências Exatas da UFMG - (1969/1973)
• Course for the Formation of Nuclear Research Reactor Operators (for Furnas Centrais Elétricas do Brasil S.A.) - 1972-1975
• Laboratory Course in Modern Instrumental Physical Chemistry - Deptº de Química do Inst. de Ciências Exatas da UFMG - 1974/1975
• Class Notes for Fis 301 - Laboratory Course on Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism at the Instituto de Física da Univ. Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP) - 1975-1978.
• Several other Course Notes for the Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear, for the Universidade Estadual de Campinas and the Federal University of Minas Gerais on Radiological Protection, Radioisotope Applications in Industry and in Medicine, Radiochemistry, Nuclear Instruments and Methods, Physical Measurements, etc..

PUBLISHED PAPERS, PANELS AND CONFERENCES

• "Processo de Deteção de Nêutrons de 14 Mev" - Collaboration: C.A.F.Alvim da Silva. XXII Reunião Anual da SBPC - Salvador, 1970.
• "Cálculos Térmicos e Elétricos para o Loop Térmico e Recomendações de Projeto" - Nota Interna DCM #037/71- 1971.
• "Ante-Projeto de Sistema de Alimentação do Loop Térmico" - Nota Interna DCM #048/69 - 1969.
• "A Simple and Reliable Cyclotron Beam Monitor" (em colaboração). Nuclear Instruments and Methods 78, 124 (1967)
• "Especificação do Sistema de Regulação e Alimentação Elétrica" do Loop Térmico. Nota Interna DCM 026/72 - 1972.
• "Implantação de Tecnologia Brasileira de Instrumentação e Controle Nucleares" - Projeto em colaboração com J.B. Siqueira para o IPR/CNEN
• "A Precise 14 MeV Neutron Detector - Nuclear Instr. and Methods 105, n^o 2, pg. 289, Dec. 1972 (in collaboration).
• "A Correction of Self-Absorption Effects in Activation Analysis for Oxygen with 14 MeV Neutrons - Anal. Chem. Acta - Vol. 63 - pg. 359 (1973), (in collaboration).
• "Curso de Treinamento de Operadores em Reatores de Pesquisa (CTORP)" (em colaboração) IPR-CBTN - Abril 1974 - Coordenação e Redação dos Livros de Teoria e de Experimentos. Internal Publication. Four Volumes, Several Editions.
• Curso de Deteção de Radiações - IPR/CCTN - Nota Interna # 34/72- 1972.
• Análise Instrumental de Silício, Ferro e Fósforo por Ativação com Nêutrons de 14 MeV - Nota SAI-21-CDTN #021/73 - Jan. 73.
• Perturbação do Fluxo Térmico da Mesa Giratória do Reator - IPR-R1 Devido a Absorvedores de Bromo - Congresso SBPC - 1970 (in collaboration).
• Dosagem da Água Pesada - Nota Interna IPR 1972 - (in collaboration)
• Calibração do Sistema de Deteção do TP-2 - Nota Interna GIC-003/73.
• Proposal of an Experiment to Test Einstein’s Theory of Relativity (Proposta de um Experimento para Testar a Relatividade de Einstein)- Nota Interna ICEX #014/73 - 1973.
• Cosmological Red-Shifts of Gravitational Origin? - Nota Interna s/n^o- 1973.
• Corrosão e Proteção na Subcrítica CAPITU -. Nota Interna DCM-007/72
• Projeto e Construção de Contadores Proporcionais. Nota Interna DCM-017/711971.
• Medidas de Condutividade Térmica de Refratários - Nota Interna DCM-014/73-1973.
• A New Fast Physical Method for the Routine Analysis of Minerals of Uranium and Thorium (Novo Método de Dosagem de Minérios de Urânio e Tório para Análises de Rotina em Larga Escala - (Confidential Document for CNEN).
• A New Method for Enriching Uranium With Laser Light (Confidential Document for CNEN)
• Novo Método de Análise Isotópica do Urânio (Confidential Document for CNEN).
• Dosagem do Urânio por Fluorescência X com Radioisótopos (Confidential Document for CNEN)
• Método de Prospecção Hidrogeoquímica do Urânio (Confidential Document for CNEN).
• Projeto de Enriquecimento Isotópico do Urânio - Programa Brasileiro IPR/CNEN - 1970-1974 (Confidential Document for CNEN).
• Dispositivo Preciso para a Medida de Altas Pressões (Patent IPR/CNEN).

PAPERS PUBLISHED WHILE AT UNICAMP (UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL DE CAMPINAS

• A New Instrumental Method for Analysis of Rare Earth Elements (Submitted to Nuclear Instr. an Methods).
• A Quantum Mechanical Solution of Zeno’s Paradox (Published in Manuscript, a Review of Philosophy and Epistemology, II:1 (l978), 81-103
• A Crucial Experiment to Test Einstein’s Special Relativity Theory. (Submitted to II Nuovo Cimento).
• A Note on the Meaning of the Kennedy-Thorndyke Experiment. (Submitted to Am. J. Phys.).
• Condenser Protection Against Reverse Currents in Megawatt Laser Pulse Circuits (to be submitted to J. Sci. Instr.)
• Optimum Discrimination Against Noise and Background in Pulse Counting Circuits (to be submitted to Nuclear Instr. and Methods).
• Are Quasars Simulacra? (submitted to Nature).
• A Precise Apparatus for the Determination of the Volume of Irregularly Shape Solids ( em colaboração) - (submitted to J. Sci. Instr.)

PARTICIPATION IN MISSIONS, SYMPOSIA, CONGRESSES AND PANELS

• Member of Sociedade Brasileira de Física (1968 to present)
• Congresso Inter-Americano de Energia Nuclear - Quitandinha 1969.
• XXII Annual Symposium of SBPC - Salvador, 1970, and subsequent ones.
• Member of Mission of Brazilian CNEN to Italy (Italian CNEN) 1972.

EXPERIENCE IN TEACHING AND RESEARCH

ORIENTATION OF MASTERS’ AND DOCTORS’ THESES

• Análise de Rotina de Urânio e Tório pelo Método de Nêutrons Retardados (Mestre em Ciências) - G.A.C. Tupynambá - 1969 - CCTN.
• Perturbação do Fluxo de Nêutrons Térmicos na Mesa Giratória do Reator IPR-R1 devido a Detetores de Bromo - (Mestre em Ciências) - J.M. de Lima - 1970 - CCTN/UFMG.
• Monitor de Alta Seletividade para Nêutrons de 14 MeV - (Mestre em Ciências) - C.A.F. Alvim de Silva - 1970. CCTN/UFMG.
• Análise de Oxigênio com Nêutrons de 14 MeV (Mestre em Ciências) J.A.L. Horta - 1971 - CCTN/UFMG.
• Medidores de Vazão com saída elétrica (Mestre em Ciências) - E.E.V.P. Machado - 1972 - CCTN/UFMG.
• Fonte Estabilizada para Detetores Nucleares (Mestre em Ciências) H.P. Pedrosa - 1972 - CCTN/UFMG.
• Análise de Espectros (Mestre em Ciências) - H. Gomes - 1973 - CCTN/UFMG.
• Medidas de Potência e Correntes Elétricas por Efeito Hall (Mestre em Ciências) - A. M. Hermeto - CCTN/UFMG - 1973.
• Técnica de Coincidência 4p b -g para Calibração Absoluta de Padrões Radioativos (Mestre em Ciências) F.M.B. de Morais - CCTN/UFMG - 1975.
• Detector de Grande Área para Monitoração de Partículas Alfa (Mestre em Ciências) - H.R. Vianna - CCTN/UFMG - 1975.
• J. H. Gerken Sobrinho - Projeto, Construção e Calibração de Espectrômetro de Massa - CCTN/UFMG - 1975.
• S. T. Máximo - Método de Dosagem de Elementos Traços para a Prospecção Hidro-Geoquímica Baseado em Troca Iônica - ICEX - UFMG - 1975

PARTICIPATION IN EXAMINER COMMITEES FOR PROFESSORAL, DOCTORAL AND MASTERS THESES AND CONTESTS

• G.A.C. Tupynambá - CCTN/UFMG - 1969 - Master’s Degree
• C.C. Murta - CCTN/UFMG - 1970 - Master’s Degree
• J.M. de Lima - CCTN/UFMG - 1970 - Master’s Degree
• J.A.L. Horta - CCTN/UFMG - 1971 - Master’s Degree
• H. P. Pedrosa - CCTN/UFMG - 1972 - Master’s Degree
• C. A. F. Alvim da Silva - CCTN/UFMG - 1970 - Master’s Degree
• E.E.V.P. Machado - CCTN/UFMG - 1972 - Master’s Degree
• Harry Gomes - CCTN/UFMG - 1973 - Master’s Degree
• Perpétua Athayde Soares - CCTN/UFMG - 1974 - Master’s Degree
• Nádia Selmi-Dei Meinberg - CCTN/UFMG - 1974 - Master’s Degree
• F. M. Borges de Morais - CCTN/UFMG - 1975 - Master’s Degree
• H.R. Vianna - CCTN/UFMG - 1975 - Master’s Degree
• J.H. Gerken Sobrinho - CCTN/UFMG - 1975 - Master’s Degree
• C. V. Bonfati - Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp) - 1978 - Doctor’s Degree
• Participation in Several Examining Committees for Professoral Contests at the UFMG for Chairs in Disciplines Ministered by the Dept. of Nuclear Engineering.

ACTIVITIES IN PROFESSIONAL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

• Participation in the Design and Construction of the 60 MeV AVF Cyclotron of the Washington University (Saint Louis, MO, USA) - 1963/1968 - Research Assistant and Group Member - The Cyclotron was built and operated as part of the work for my Doctorate in Nuclear Physics.
• Isotopic Enrichment of Uranium and Thorium by Photochemical Methods- IPR/CNEN - 1969/1974 and Unicamp - 1975-1982. The method was implement and used as standard by the Brazilian National Commission for Nuclear Energy (CNEN)
• Development and Implementation of Fast Automatic Method of Assaying Uranium and Thorium Minerals for Geochemical Prospection - IPR - 1968/1974 - This research was done by a group under my command confidentially for Brazilian National Commission for Nuclear Energy (CNEN). The method was implement and used as standard and was used for several million individual analyses of geochemical samples in the Triga Reactor, and resulted in the finding of ample supplies of these ores.
• Measurement and Interpretation of the Nuclear Structure of Light Nuclides Excited by Alpha Particles from the 60 MeV Cyclotron at the Washington University, St. Louis (MO - USA) as thesis work for the partial fullfilment of my Ph.D. program (1965/1967).
• Research and Development of Physico-Chemical Methods of Analysis for the Geochemical Prospection of Minerals at the Part per Billion Level. The process was developed, implemented and utilized in routine prospection of the rarer metals.
• New Method of Rare Earth Assaying by the Escape X-Rays of Xenon - Departamento de Química do ICEX - UFMG (1974). Research done for the Free-Docency Thesis, in partial fullfilment for this Post-Doctoral, Full Professor Degree.
• Preliminary Design and Specifications of the CT-1 Thermal Loop of 350 KVA for the simulation of the thermal behavior of Nuclear Reactors - IPR - 1969-1970. The Thermal Loop was designed and implemented successfully.

RESEARCH DONE AT THE ICEX/UFMG (As Coordinator or as a Group Member)

• Geochemical and Hydrogeochemical Prospection of Minerals with 14 MeV Neutron Tubes. Group Manager and Coordinator. Departamento de Química do ICEX/UFMG. (1972-1984)
• Physico-Chemical Analysis by Positronium Annihilation. Coordinator - Departamento de Química do ICEX/UFMG. (1972-1984)
• Determination of Bonding Chemical Shifts by X-Ray Spectrometry - Departamento de Química do ICEX/UFMG. (1972-1984)
• Assembly, Commissioning and Maintainance of the Instrumentation and the Experiments for the Course on Modern Physical Chemistry (Responsible for the Experimental Part) Departamento de Química do ICEX/UFMG. (1972-1984).
• Assembly, Commissioning and Maintainance of the Heavy Organic Molecule Mass Spectrometer (Responsible for the Analytical Services of same) - Departamento de Química do ICEX/UFMG. (1972-1984).

RESEARCH DONE AT THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF CAMPINAS (UNICAMP)
(As Free-Docent Professor of the Physics Institute - Department of Quantum Electronics)

• Uranium Isotopic Enrichment with Lasers (Sub-Chief of Group)
• Non-Destructive Assay of Oils in Single Cereal Grains by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
• Design and Development of Electronic Instrumentation for Lasers
• Design and Construction of Laser Powered Saccharimeter for the Brazilian Fuel Alcohol Program. The Instrument was developed and patented, an a functional prototype was built.
• Theoretical and Experimental Research in Relativity and Cosmology (In collaboration with Prof. Waldyr Rodrigues and other members of the Mathematics Department)

TEACHING AND ADMINISTRATIVE POSTS AT UNICAMP (1974-1982)

• Coordinator and Organizer of the Electronics Laboratory of the Instituto de Física.
• Professor of Fis 301 - Lab Course in Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism I
• Professor of Fis 302 - Lab Course in Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism II
• Professor of Term 102 - Introductory Thermodynamics (I)
• Professor of Term 202 - Intermediate Thermodynamics (II)
• Professor of Term 302 - Advanced Thermodynamics (III)
• Professor of Fis 302 - Lab Course in Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism II
• Professor of Seminar Course in Advanced Quantum Electronic

Sejarah Abjad Jawa dan Legenda Ajisaka....!!!!

Sejarah Abjad Jawa dan Legenda Ajisaka

Dalam sejarah kebudayaan, khususnya kesusasteraan Jawa, terdapat tulisan Jawa yang menggunakan aksara (huruf) Jawa sebagai salahsatu unsur penting di dalam kebudayaan Jawa. Menurut para ahli, khususnya ahli epigrafi aksara Jawa bermula dari tulisan atau huruf Sanskerta Dewanagari dari Negara India Selatan, sebagaimana tertulis pada prasasti-prasasti dari Dinasti Palawa di daerah pantai India Selatan sekitar Abad IV, yang diberi nama “tulisan Palawa”.

Prasasti Jawa yang tertua juga menggunakan tulisan Palawa, sehingga diperkirakan tulisan Palawa ini mulai digunakan di Jawa sejak abad IV, namun huruf-huruf Palawa di Jawa telah mengalami berbagai perubahan sendiri. Para pujangga Jawa Timur sejak abad-X sampai abad-XI menggunakan huruf Palawa dalam ciptaan-ciptaan “kakawin” mereka sudah memiliki ciri khas Jawa.

Dalam tahapan perkembangannya, masih terus mengalami perubahan dan huruf Jawa yang diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah di Jawa Tengah dan Jawa Timur mengambil dari karya-karya kesusasteraan zaman kerajaan Mataram pada abad-XVIII dan XIX, seperti digunakan oleh Surat Kabar “Bramartani” yaitu Surat Kabar pertama yang berbahasa Jawa sekitar tahun 1878.
Huruf (aksara) Jawa terdiri dari duapuluh yaitu ; ha-na-ca-ra-ka-da-ta-sa-wa-la-pa-dha-ja-ya-nya-ma-ga-ba-tha-nga (dalam ucapan/sebutan: ho-no-ro-ko-do-to-so-wo-lo-po-dho-jo-yo-nyo-mo-go-bo-tho-ngo), yang didalamnya ternyata mengandung arti menceritakan sebuah legenda, yaitu tentang seorang pahlawan dalam mitologi yang datang dari Makkah sedang berkelana ke berbagai negara, yang kemudian diketahui bernama Ajisaka.
Ajisaka datang di Srilangka pantai India Selatan kemudian di Sokadana (mungkin yang dimaksud adalah Sumatera) dan akhirnya tiba suatu tempat di Pulau Jawa yang waktu itu masih dihuni oleh raksasa-raksasa. Pertamakali, Ajisaka menemukan sejenis gandum yang dinamakan “jawawut” sebagai makanan pokok penduduk di tempat itu, yang kemudian ia memberi nama pulau itu menjadi “Nusa Jawa”.
Tentang Aji Saka sendiri, terdapat berbagai literatur yang mengkisahkan sejarah Ajisaka dalam versi yang berbeda. Menurut Dr. Purwadi, M.Hum dan Hari Jumanto, S.S dalam buku Asal Mula Tanah Jawa (Gelombang Ilmu: Sleman-Yogyakarta: 2006), yang disusun berdasarkan Kitab-kitab Jawa Juno dari Serat Pustaka Raja Purwa karya Raden Ngabehi Ranggawarsita, juga diambil dari kisah-kisah Babad Tanah Jawi. Dr. Purwadi,M.Hum dan Hari Jumanto, S.S menyebutkan, Ajisaka adalah orang yang pertama menginjakkan kaki di tanah Jawa dengan nama Prabu Isaka atau Prabu Ajisaka.

Prabu Isaka atau Ajisaka adalah putra dari Prabu Iwasaka atau Bathara Anggajali adalah putra dari Bathara Ramayadi atau Empu Ramadi adalah putra Sang Hyang Ramaprawa, anak Sang Hyang Hening putra Sang Hyang Tunggal. Prabu Ajisaka diperintahkan untuk berangkat melakukan tapa brata (meditasi) ke sebuah pulau yang sangat panjang. Kata “panjang” dalam bahasa Jawa artinya “dawa”, yang oleh Sang Hyang Guru disebut “jawa” atau “pulau jawa”.
Di dalam perjalannya ke Pulau dawa (Pulau Jawa) yang cukup panjang dari Aceh sampai Bali masih bersatu. Prabu Ajisaka untuk pertama menginjakkan kaki dan bermukim di Gunung Hyang atau sekarang bernama Gunung Kendeng di daerah antara Probolinggo dan Besuki (Daerah Jawa Timur) dengan nama Empu Sangkala. Aji Saka kemudian menemukan dua Raksasa yang terbujur kaku (mati). Ketika Ajisaka melihat tangan mereka masing-masing menggenggam “daun lontar yang berisi tulisan”, di tangan raksasa yang satu bertuliskan huruf “purwa” (kuno) dan satunya lagi huruf Thai. Setelah dua tulisan tersebut disatukannya, Ajisaka menciptakan Abjad (Aksara) Jawa yang terdiri dari duapuluh huruf, sebagaimana telah disebutkan di muka.

Tidak sekedar menciptakan aksara, akan tetapi Ajisaka juga memberikan arti dalam setiap lajur aksara Jawa tersebut, yaitu: Ha-na-ca-ra-ka (ho-no-co-ro-ko) = ada dua utusan (dua raksasa), Da-ta-sa-wa-la (do-to-so-wo-lo) = saling bertengkar/berkelahi, Pa-dha-ja-ya-nya (po-dho-jo-yo-nyo) = sama-sama kuat dan sakti, Ma-ga-ba-tha-nga (mo-go-bo-tho-ngo) = akhirnya mereka “sampyuh” (mati bersama).

Dalam versi yang berbeda, di dalam buku “Nawang Sari” (Fajar Pustaka Baru:Yogyakarta:2002) DR. Damardjati Supadjar mengatakan mengatakan terjadi salah kaprah pemahaman kandungan makna dari honocoroko seperti tersebut diatas. Damardjati Supadjar mengutip ungkapan Ki Sarodjo “ bagi perasaan saya rangkaian huruf di dalam carakan jawa itu bukannya menambatkan suatu kisah, melainkan suatu ungkapan filosofis yang berlaku universal dan sangat dalam artinya dan membawa kita tunduk dan taqwa kepada Allah”.
Menurut Ki Sarodjo, yang benar adalah: honocoroko, (hono= ada) (coroko= Cipto-Roso-Karso) sehingga honocoroko = ada cipta-rasa dan karsa, dotosowolo,(doto = datan atau tanpa) (sowolo= suwolo atau menentang) sehingga dotosowolo = tidak menentang atau tidak keberatan atau pasrah kemudian podhojoyonyo (podho = sama sama), (joyonyo = sukses/berjaya) sehingga podhojoyonyo = sama sama sukses) dan mogobothongo ( mogo = meletakkan sesuatu di tempat yang tinggi, (bothongo = bathiniyah = spiritualitas) sehingga mogobhotongo = meletakkan potensi taqwa dan amal di dalam hati sanubari serta disimpan pada tempat yang tinggi.
Artinya, derajat seseorang muslim/muslimat bukan terletak pada kekuasaannya, kepandaiannya, kekayaannya, kegagahannya, kekuatannya, akan tetapi terketak pada “ketaqwaannya”. Pada dekade berikutnya, oleh para ahli kejawen dan kebatinan Jawa, aksara Jawa hanacaraka ini diberi energi magic yang diyakini mereka dapat dijadikan “daya penolak” berbagai hal-hal yang buruk dan membahayakan manusia, bernama ajian “carakabalik”, yaitu dengan cara dibalik (membaca dari huruf terakhir) “nga-tha-ba-ga-ma, nya-ya-ja-dha-pa, la-wa-sa-ta-da, ka-ra-ca-na-ha”

 

Sejarah Kerajaan Majapahit

Bangkitnya Peradaban Langit di Nusantara..!!! The history will repeat

Majapahit adl sebuah kerajaan kuno di Indonesia yg pernah berdiri dari sekitar tahun 1293 hingga 1500 M. Kerajaan ini mencapai puncak kejayaan pada masa kekuasaan Hayam Wuruk yg berkuasa dari tahun 1350 hingga 1389. Majapahit menguasai kerajaan-kerajaan lain di semenanjung Malaya Borneo Sumatra Bali dan Filipina. Kerajaan Majapahit adl kerajaan Hindu-Buddha terakhir yg menguasai Semenanjung Malaya dan dianggap sebagai salah satu dari negara terbesar dalam sejarah Indonesia. Kekuasaan terbentang di Sumatra Semenanjung Malaya Borneo hingga Indonesia timur meskipun wilayah kekuasaan masih diperdebatkan.

Sejarah Kerajaan Majapahit

Ha terdapat sedikit bukti fisik sisa-sisa Majapahit dan sejarah tak jelas.Sumber utama yg digunakan oleh para sejarawan adl Pararaton - Kitab Raja-raja dalam bahasa Kawi dan Nagarakretagama dalam bahasa Jawa Kuno.Pararaton terutama menceritakan Ken Arok (pendiri Kerajaan Singhasari) namun juga memuat beberapa bagian pendek mengenai terbentuk Majapahit. Sementara itu Nagarakertagama merupakan puisi Jawa Kuno yg ditulis pada masa keemasan Majapahit di bawah pemerintahan Hayam Wuruk. Setelah masa itu hal yg terjadi tidaklah jelas.Selain itu terdapat beberapa prasasti dalam bahasa Jawa Kuno maupun catatan sejarah dari Tiongkok dan negara-negara lain.

Keakuratan semua naskah berbahasa Jawa tersebut dipertentangkan. Tidak dapat disangkal bahwa sumber-sumber itu memuat unsur non-historis dan mitos. Beberapa sarjana seperti C.C. Berg menganggap semua naskah tersebut bukan catatan masa lalu tetapi memiliki arti supernatural dalam hal dapat mengetahui masa depan. Namun demikian banyak pula sarjana yg beranggapan bahwa garis besar sumber-sumber tersebut dapat diterima krn sejalan dgn catatan sejarah dari Tiongkok khusus daftar penguasa dan keadaan kerajaan yg tampak cukup pasti.

Sejarah Pendirian Kerajaan Majapahit

Sesudah Singhasari mengusir Sriwijaya dari Jawa secara keseluruhan pada tahun 1290 Singhasari menjadi kerajaan paling kuat di wilayah tersebut. Hal ini menjadi perhatian Kubilai Khan penguasa Dinasti Yuan di Tiongkok. Ia mengirim utusan yg bernama Meng Chi ke Singhasari yg menuntut upeti. Kertanagara penguasa kerajaan Singhasari yg terakhir menolak utk membayar upeti dan mempermalukan utusan tersebut dgn merusak wajah dan memotong telinganya. Kublai Khan marah dan lalu memberangkatkan ekspedisi besar ke Jawa tahun 1293. Ketika itu Jayakatwang adipati Kediri sudah membunuh Kertanagara. Atas saran Aria Wiraraja Jayakatwang memberikan pengampunan kepada Raden Wijaya menantu Kertanegara yg datang menyerahkan diri. Raden Wijaya kemudian diberi hutan Tarik. Ia membuka hutan itu dan membangun desa baru. Desa itu dinamai Majapahit yg nama diambil dari buah maja dan rasa “pahit” dari buah tersebut. Ketika pasukan Mongolia tiba Wijaya bersekutu dgn pasukan Mongolia utk bertempur melawan Jayakatwang. Raden Wijaya berbalik menyerang sekutu Mongol sehingga memaksa mereka menarik pulang kembali pasukan secara kalang-kabut krn mereka berada di teritori asing. Saat itu juga merupakan kesempatan terakhir mereka utk menangkap angin muson agar dapat pulang atau mereka harus terpaksa menunggu enam bulan lagi di pulau yg asing.

Tanggal pasti yg digunakan sebagai tanggal kelahiran kerajaan Majapahit adl hari penobatan Raden Wijaya sebagai raja yaitu pada tanggal 10 November 1293. Ia dinobatkan dgn nama resmi Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. Kerajaan ini menghadapi masalah. Beberapa orang terpercaya Kertarajasa termasuk Ranggalawe Sora dan Nambi memberontak melawan meskipun pemberontakan tersebut tak berhasil. Slamet Muljana menduga bahwa mahapatih Halayudha lah yg melakukan konspirasi utk menjatuhkan semua orang terpercaya raja agar ia dapat mencapai posisi tertinggi dalam pemerintahan. Namun setelah kematian pemberontak terakhir (Kuti) Halayudha ditangkap dan dipenjara dan lalu dihukum mati.Wijaya meninggal dunia pada tahun 1309.

Anak dan penerus Wijaya Jayanegara adl penguasa yg jahat dan amoral. Ia digelari Kala Gemet yg berarti “penjahat lemah”. Pada tahun 1328 Jayanegara dibunuh oleh tabib Tanca. Ibu tiri yaitu Gayatri Rajapatni seharus menggantikan akan tetapi Rajapatni memilih mengundurkan diri dari istana dan menjadi pendeta wanita. Rajapatni menunjuk anak perempuan Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi utk menjadi ratu Majapahit. Selama kekuasaan Tribhuwana kerajaan Majapahit berkembang menjadi lbh besar dan terkenal di daerah tersebut. Tribhuwana menguasai Majapahit sampai kematian ibu pada tahun 1350. Ia diteruskan oleh putra Hayam Wuruk.

Kejayaan Kerajaan Majapahit

Hayam Wuruk juga disebut Rajasanagara memerintah Majapahit dari tahun 1350 hingga 1389. Pada masa Majapahit mencapai puncak kejayaan dgn bantuan mahapatih Gajah Mada. Di bawah perintah Gajah Mada (1313-1364) Majapahit menguasai lbh banyak wilayah. Pada tahun 1377 beberapa tahun setelah kematian Gajah Mada Majapahit melancarkan serangan laut ke Palembang menyebabkan runtuh sisa-sisa kerajaan Sriwijaya. Jenderal terkenal Majapahit lain adl Adityawarman yg terkenal krn penaklukan di Minangkabau.

Menurut Kakawin Nagarakretagama pupuh XIII-XV daerah kekuasaan Majapahit meliputi Sumatra semenanjung Malaya Borneo Sulawesi kepulauan Nusa Tenggara Maluku Papua dan sebagian kepulauan Filipina. Namun demikian batasan alam dan ekonomi menunjukkan bahwa daerah-daerah kekuasaan tersebut tampak tidaklah berada di bawah kekuasaan terpusat Majapahit tetapi terhubungkan satu sama lain oleh perdagangan yg mungkin berupa monopoli oleh raja[14]. Majapahit juga memiliki hubungan dgn Campa Kamboja Siam Birma bagian selatan dan Vietnam dan bahkan mengirim duta-duta ke Tiongkok.

Keruntuhan Majapahit

Sesudah mencapai puncak pada abad ke-14 kekuasaan Majapahit berangsur-angsur melemah. Tampak terjadi perang saudara (Perang Paregreg) pada tahun 1405-1406 antara Wirabhumi melawan Wikramawardhana. Demikian pula telah terjadi pergantian raja yg dipertengkarkan pada tahun 1450-an dan pemberontakan besar yg dilancarkan oleh seorang bangsawan pada tahun 1468.

Dalam tradisi Jawa ada sebuah kronogram atau candrasengkala yg berbunyi sirna ilang kretaning bumi. Sengkala ini konon adl tahun berakhir Majapahit dan harus dibaca sebagai 0041 yaitu tahun 1400 Saka atau 1478 Masehi. Arti sengkala ini adl “sirna hilanglah kemakmuran bumi”. Namun demikian yg sebenar digambarkan oleh candrasengkala tersebut adl gugur Bre Kertabumi raja ke-11 Majapahit oleh Girindrawardhana.

Ketika Majapahit didirikan pedagang Muslim dan para penyebar agama sudah mulai memasuki nusantara. Pada akhir abad ke-14 dan awal abad ke-15 pengaruh Majapahit di seluruh nusantara mulai berkurang. Pada saat bersamaan sebuah kerajaan perdagangan baru yg berdasarkan agama Islam yaitu Kesultanan Malaka mulai muncul di bagian barat nusantara.

Catatan sejarah dari Tiongkok Portugis (Tome Pires) dan Italia (Pigafetta) mengindikasikan bahwa telah terjadi perpindahan kekuasaan Majapahit dari tangan penguasa Hindu ke tangan Adipati Unus penguasa dari Kesultanan Demak antara tahun 1518 dan 1521 M.

Sistem Perekonomian Majapahit

Majapahit merupakan negara agraris dan sekaligus negara perdagangan. Majapahit memiliki pejabat sendiri utk mengurusi pedagang dari India dan Tiongkok yg menetap di ibu kota kerajaan maupun berbagai tempat lain di wilayah Majapahit di Jawa.

Menurut catatan Wang Ta-yuan pedagang Tiongkok komoditas ekspor Jawa pada saat itu ialah lada garam kain dan burung kakak tua sedangkan komoditas impor adl mutiara emas perak sutra barang keramik dan barang dari besi. Mata uang dibuat dari campuran perak timah putih timah hitam dan tembaga. Selain itu catatan Odorico da Pordenone biarawan Katolik Roma dari Italia yg mengunjungi Jawa pada tahun 1321 menyebutkan bahwa istana raja Jawa penuh dgn perhiasan emas perak dan permata.

Kebudayaan Majapahit

Ibu kota Majapahit di Trowulan merupakan kota besar dan terkenal dgn perayaan besar keagamaan yg diselenggarakan tiap tahun. Agama Buddha Siwa dan Waisnawa (pemuja Wisnu) dipeluk oleh penduduk Majapahit dan raja dianggap sekaligus titisan Buddha Siwa maupun Wisnu.

Walaupun batu bata telah digunakan dalam candi pada masa sebelum arsitek Majapahitlah yg paling ahli menggunakannya. Candi-candi Majapahit berkualitas baik secara geometris dgn memanfaatkan getah tumbuhan merambat dan gula merah sebagai perekat batu bata. Contoh candi Majapahit yg masih dapat ditemui sekarang adl Candi Tikus dan Candi Bajangratu di Trowulan Mojokerto.

Struktur Pemerintahan Majapahit

Majapahit memiliki struktur pemerintahan dan susunan birokrasi yg teratur pada masa pemerintahan Hayam Wuruk dan tampak struktur dan birokrasi tersebut tak banyak berubah selama perkembangan sejarahnya[21]. Raja dianggap sebagai penjelmaan dewa di dunia dan ia memegang otoritas politik tertinggi.

Raja dibantu oleh sejumlah pejabat birokrasi dalam melaksanakan pemerintahan dgn para putra dan kerabat dekat raja memiliki kedudukan tinggi. Perintah raja biasa diturunkan kepada pejabat-pejabat di bawah antara lain yaitu:

• Rakryan Mahamantri Katrini biasa dijabat putra-putra raja
• Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran dewan menteri yg melaksanakan pemerintahan
• Dharmmadhyaksa para pejabat hukum keagamaan
• Dharmma-upapatti para pejabat keagamaan

Dalam Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran terdapat seorang pejabat yg terpenting yaitu Rakryan Mapatih atau Patih Hamangkubhumi. Pejabat ini dapat dikatakan sebagai perdana menteri yg bersama-sama raja dapat ikut melaksanakan kebijaksanaan pemerintahan. Selain itu terdapat pula semacam dewan pertimbangan kerajaan yg anggota para sanak saudara raja yg disebut Bhattara Saptaprabhu.

Di bawah raja Majapahit terdapat pula sejumlah raja daerah yg disebut Paduka Bhattara. Mereka biasa merupakan saudara atau kerabat dekat raja dan bertugas dalam mengumpulkan penghasilan kerajaan penyerahan upeti dan pertahanan kerajaan di wilayah masing-masing. Dalam Prasasti Wingun Pitu (1447 M) disebutkan bahwa pemerintahan Majapahit dibagi menjadi 14 daerah bawahan yg dipimpin oleh seseorang yg bergelar Bhre. Daerah-daerah bawahan tersebut yaitu:

1. Kelinggapura
2. Kembang Jenar
3. Matahun
4. Pajang
5. Singhapura
6. Tanjungpura
7. Tumapel
8. Wengker
9. Daha
10. Jagaraga
11. Kabalan
12. Kahuripan
13. Keling

Raja-raja Majapahit

Berikut adl daftar penguasa Majapahit. Perhatikan bahwa terdapat periode kekosongan antara pemerintahan Rajasawardhana (penguasa ke-8) dan Girishawardhana yg mungkin diakibatkan oleh krisis suksesi yg memecahkan keluarga kerajaan Majapahit menjadi dua kelompok.

1. Raden Wijaya bergelar Kertarajasa Jayawardhana (1293 - 1309)
2. Kalagamet bergelar Sri Jayanagara (1309 - 1328)
3. Sri Gitarja bergelar Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi (1328 - 1350)
4. Hayam Wuruk bergelar Sri Rajasanagara (1350 - 1389)
5. Wikramawardhana (1389 - 1429)
6. Suhita (1429 - 1447)
7. Kertawijaya bergelar Brawijaya I (1447 - 1451)
8. Rajasawardhana bergelar Brawijaya II (1451 - 1453)
9. Purwawisesa atau Girishawardhana bergelar Brawijaya III (1456 - 1466)
10. Pandanalas atau Suraprabhawa bergelar Brawijaya IV (1466 - 1468)
11. Kertabumi bergelar Brawijaya V (1468 - 1478)
12. Girindrawardhana bergelar Brawijaya VI (1478 - 1498)
13. Hudhara bergelar Brawijaya VII (1498-1518)

Warisan Sejarah Kerajaan Majapahit

Majapahit telah menjadi sumber inspirasi kejayaan masa lalu bagi bangsa-bangsa Nusantara pada abad-abad berikutnya.

Kesultanan-kesultanan Islam Demak Pajang dan Mataram berusaha mendapatkan legitimasi atas kekuasaan mereka melalui hubungan ke Majapahit. Demak menyatakan legitimasi keturunan melalui Kertabhumi; pendiri Raden Patah menurut babad-babad keraton Demak dinyatakan sebagai anak Kertabhumi dan seorang Putri Cina yg dikirim ke luar istana sebelum ia melahirkan. Penaklukan Mataram atas Wirasaba tahun 1615 yg dipimpin langsung oleh Sultan Agung sendiri memiliki arti penting krn merupakan lokasi ibukota Majapahit. Keraton-keraton Jawa Tengah memiliki tradisi dan silsilah yg berusaha membuktikan hubungan para raja dgn keluarga kerajaan Majapahit sering kali dalam bentuk makam leluhur yg di Jawa merupakan bukti penting dan legitimasi dianggap meningkat melalui hubungan tersebut. Bali secara khusus mendapat pengaruh besar dari Majapahit dan masyarakat Bali menganggap diri mereka penerus sejati kebudayaan Majapahit.

Para penggerak nasionalisme Indonesia modern termasuk mereka yg terlibat Gerakan Kebangkitan Nasional di awal abad ke-20 telah merujuk pada Majapahit sebagai contoh gemilang masa lalu Indonesia. Majapahit kadang dijadikan acuan batas politik negara Republik Indonesia saat ini. Dalam propaganda yg dijalankan tahun 1920-an Partai Komunis Indonesia menyampaikan visi tentang masyarakat tanpa kelas sebagai penjelmaan kembali dari Majapahit yg diromantiskan. Sukarno juga mengangkat Majapahit utk kepentingan persatuan bangsa sedangkan Orde Baru menggunakan utk kepentingan perluasan dan konsolidasi kekuasaan negara. Sebagaimana Majapahit negara Indonesia modern meliputi wilayah yg luas dan secara politik berpusat di pulau Jawa.

Majapahit memiliki pengaruh yg nyata dan berkelanjutan dalam bidang arsitektur di Indonesia. Penggambaran bentuk paviliun (pendopo) berbagai bangunan di ibukota Majapahit dalam kitab Negarakretagama telah menjadi inspirasi bagi arsitektur berbagai bangunan keraton di Jawa serta Pura dan kompleks perumahan masyarakat di Bali masa kini.

Pada zaman Majapahit terjadi perkembangan pelestarian dan penyebaran teknik pembuatan keris berikut fungsi sosial dan ritualnya. Teknik pembuatan keris mengalami penghalusan dan pemilihan bahan menjadi semakin selektif. Keris pra-Majapahit dikenal berat namun semenjak masa ini dan seterus bilah keris yg ringan tetapi kuat menjadi petunjuk kualitas sebuah keris. Penggunaan keris sebagai tanda kebesaran kalangan aristokrat juga berkembang pada masa ini dan meluas ke berbagai penjuru Nusantara terutama di bagian barat. Selain keris berkembang pula teknik pembuatan dan penggunaan tombak.

Meskipun tak ada bukti tertulis banyak perguruan pencak silat di Nusantara mengklaim memiliki akar tradisi hingga ke zaman Majapahit. Sebagai suatu rezim ekspansionis tentara Majapahit dapat diduga memiliki kemampuan bertempur yg lbh handal daripada bawahan-bawahannya.

Kebesaran kerajaan ini dan berbagai intrik politik yg terjadi pada masa itu menjadi sumber inspirasi tak henti-henti bagi para seniman masa selanjut utk menuangkan kreasi terutama di Indonesia. Berikut adl daftar beberapa karya seni Kerjaan Majapahit yg berkaitan dgn masa tersebut.

• Serat Darmagandhul sebuah kitab yg tak jelas penulis krn menggunakan nama pena Ki Kalamwadi namun diperkirakan dari masa Kasunanan Surakarta. Kitab ini berkisah tentang hal-hal yg berkaitan dgn perubahan keyakinan orang Majapahit dari agama sinkretis “Buda” ke Islam dan sejumlah ibadah yg perlu dilakukan sebagai umat Islam.
• Serial “Mahesa Rani” karya Teguh Santosa yg dimuat di Majalah Hai mengambil latar belakang pada masa keruntuhan Singhasari hingga awal-awal karier Mada (Gajah Mada) adik seperguruan Lubdhaka seorang rekan Mahesa Rani.
• Komik/Cerita bergambar Imperium Majapahit karya Jan Mintaraga.
• Komik Majapahit karya R.A. Kosasih
• Strip komik “Panji Koming” karya Dwi Koendoro yg dimuat di surat kabar “Kompas” edisi Minggu menceritakan kisah sehari-hari seorang warga Majapahit bernama Panji Koming.
• Sandyakalaning Majapahit (1933) roman sejarah dgn setting masa keruntuhan Majapahit karya Sanusi Pane.
• Kemelut Di Majapahit roman sejarah dgn setting masa kejayaan Majapahit karya Asmaraman S. Kho Ping Hoo.
• Zaman Gemilang (1938/1950/2000) roman sejarah yg menceritakan akhir masa Singasari masa Majapahit dan berakhir pada intrik seputar terbunuh Jayanegara karya Matu Mona/Hasbullah Parinduri.
• Senopati Pamungkas (1986/2003) cerita silat dgn setting runtuh Singhasari dan awal berdiri Majapahit hingga pemerintahan Jayanagara karya Arswendo Atmowiloto.
• Dyah Pitaloka - Senja di Langit Majapahit (2005) roman karya Hermawan Aksan tentang Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi putri dari Kerajaan Sunda yg gugur dalam Peristiwa Bubat.
• Gajah Mada (2005) sebuah roman sejarah berseri yg mengisahkan kehidupan Gajah Mada dgn ambisi menguasai Nusantara karya Langit Kresna Hariadi.
• Tutur Tinular suatu adaptasi film karya S. Tidjab dari serial sandiwara radio. Kisah ini berlatar belakang Singhasari pada pemerintahan Kertanegara hingga Majapahit pada pemerintahan Jayanagara.
• Saur Sepuh suatu adaptasi film karya Niki Kosasih dari serial sandiwara radio yg populer pada awal 1990-an. Film ini sebetul lbh berfokus pada sejarah Pajajaran namun berkait dgn Majapahit pula.
• Walisongo sinetron Ramadhan tahun 2003 yg berlatar Majapahit di masa Brawijaya V hingga Kesultanan Demak di zaman Sultan Trenggana.